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Article Excerpt
Theories explaining delinquency have been examined primarily using quantitative methods. The current study used interviews to gain insight into the lives of delinquent male adolescents. Results indicate that no single theory best explains delinquency, but a combination of theories provides comprehensive representation.
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Many theories, such as social control theory, social learning theory, and stress theory, provide an explanation for delinquency and substance abuse in adolescents. Each of these theories adopts a slightly different perspective on the causes of criminal behavior by highlighting specific characteristics that could either prevent or lead to delinquency. A considerable body of research and literature has identified various factors and tested some of these theories (e.g., Bellair, Roscigno, & McNulty, 2003; Zimmermann, 2006); however, the majority, if not all, of these empirical studies have been quantitative. That is, each has been conducted with a priori hypotheses that have directed the study's design and measures. Whereas these studies have produced important results that increase the understanding of delinquent behavior, the voices of delinquent youths have not been heard.
These voices can provide a bird's-eye view of youths' experiences, including their home lives, their peers, and how they cope with various situations-providing personal insight into possible causes of or prevention of engagement in delinquent behavior. The qualitative approach implemented in this study was used with the intention of providing information that may help counselors better understand adolescent delinquent behavior. Qualitative methods provide an effective way to explore the subjective meanings these youths make of their life experiences, and any commonalities among their lives may lead to a better understanding of their current delinquent behavior (Banyard & Miller, 1998). The purposes of this study were to (a) better understand the life situations of juvenile delinquents, (b) determine which theory or theories of delinquent behavior might best provide enlightenment into unruly and offending behaviors (including substance use and abuse), and (c) provide counselors with effective interventions and helping suggestions.
Before addressing the youths' narratives, we discuss a few theories of delinquency. Although an exhaustive list and comprehensive description of every theory of delinquency is beyond the scope of the current article, several theories have been frequently discussed and researched in the literature; thus, these were selected for discussion in the current study. These theories include social control theory, general strain theory, economic strain theory, stress and coping theory, and social learning theory. An additional theory, the life-course criminology theory, was also selected because of its recent proposal in the literature (Laub, 2006). These theories and their assumptions are briefly discussed as follows. A more in-depth review of each theory can be achieved from the cited references.
Social control theory (Hirschi, 1969) rests on the assumption that social connections to family, friends, work and school, and other conventional aspects of society minimize the likelihood of engagement in delinquent or criminal behavior. More specifically, social control theory suggests that supervision and adequate shaping of moral behavior by parents (along with peers whose values are honorable) reduce the possibility that youths will engage in delinquency or substance use and abuse (Moos, 2007). Through a study of over 500 adolescent boys, Farrington, Loeber, Yin, and Anderson (2002) supported this theory by determining that the main causes of delinquency included poor parental supervision, low parental reinforcement of appropriate behavior, and low involvement of the youth in family activities. In addition, these authors found that peer delinquency was a strong correlate of youth delinquent behavior but was not the cause of the behavior.
According to general strain theory (Agnew, 1992, 2001), strains or stressors create negative emotions (e.g., anger), which can become intolerable. Once they are intolerable, a person engages in a corrective action to minimize or eliminate the strain. Although this corrective action may be adaptive, it may also be criminal in nature. For example, a youth may steal money he or she desires, may seek revenge against someone by destroying property or exhibiting aggression, or may use drugs to forget or avoid a stressful event.
Economic strain theory, based on Merton's (1938) strain theory, highlights the importance that Western society places on monetary and material objects. An assumption of the economic strain theory is that strain results from economic pressures or, in particular, from a perceived loss of monetary possessions or status. For instance, a disruption in family structure, such as a divorce, could negatively affect family income, possessions, and the recipient's material objects. This disruption could result in delinquent behaviors to gain material belongings (e.g., stealing, selling drugs) or other corrective actions, such as drug use or running away, to avoid the thoughts and emotions caused by the strain (Amato & Keith, 1991). In support of this theory, Bellair et al. (2003) studied 11- to 20-year-old adolescents from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. These authors concluded that, with dismal employment prospects, adolescents realized they could not count on legitimate and conventional employment opportunities, which thus placed them at heightened risk for delinquency.
Kaplan (1996) noted that the main assumption of the stress and coping theory is that stressful life circumstances emanate from family members, friends, and financial problems. These stressors then lead to distress and feelings of alienation, resulting in criminal behavior or substance use. Mack, Leiber, Featherstone, and Monserud (2007) provided an example of the stress and coping theory within the context of a family crisis model. They suggested that psychological distress, resentment, and tension are associated with a disturbance in the family system (e.g., parental death, divorce). After such a crisis, children in the family tend to seek attention and respond by acting out or engaging in diversionary activities, such as antisocial behaviors. Other crisis situations that might trigger such a response include abuse, constant conflict and arguing in the family, lack of structure or stability, and alienation (Moos, 2007).
Bandura (1997) proposed the social learning theory, which posits that behavior is learned from an individual's role models. He asserted that modeling occurs through observation and imitation of specific behaviors. As long as the individual believes he or she can successfully engage in the behavior and that positive reinforcement is probable, the behavior will increase in frequency. Therefore, delinquent behavior could originate with the youth watching a family member (e.g., mom, older sibling) engage in criminal activity (e.g., stealing) and receive positive rewards (e.g., money). If the youth believes that he or she would be successful in the behavior and has enough self-efficacy, then he or she might attempt the same behavior on a smaller scale (e.g., stealing from his or her mom's purse). If the youth is successful, does not get caught, and uses the money to purchase something that he or she wants (e.g., a CD), he or she will likely continue the behavior. The stealing behavior might then escalate and become increasingly more risky (e.g., stealing from others). In support of Bandura's theory, the family has been found to be the most powerful context for socialization (Dusek & Danko, 1994; Harvey & Byrd, 2000; Zimmer-Gembeck & Locke, 2007). For example, girls who observed their mother's aggressive behaviors toward a partner were more likely to be aggressive toward their own friends (Moretti, Obsuth, Odgers, & Reebye, 2006). Therefore, research supports that parents who engage in criminal activity or use drugs have a higher probability of having children who follow in their footsteps.
The final theory that merits a brief discussion in this study is the one recently proposed by Laub (2006): life-course criminology. Laub outlined five principal dynamics of criminal behavior. First, similar to social control theory, Laub proposed that social ties regulate behavior on the basis of desired principles and values: The stronger social ties to a particular group are (e.g., family, peers), the tighter is the social control. Therefore, if a family engages in delinquent behavior, the youth--as long as he or she is strongly connected to the family--will also engage in delinquent behavior. Laub stressed that the strongest and most consistent effects on delinquency come from family, school, and peer groups. The second principal dynamic Laub suggested was continuity--that is, consistency of behavior. He found that delinquency in childhood was positively related to troublesome adult behavior. The third principal dynamic of life-course criminology is change. Adolescent behavior can change and be influenced by social ties throughout one's life. Therefore, although behavior tends to be continuous (Principle 2) and even when a youth's parents use drugs and alcohol and/or engage in criminal behavior...
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