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Article Excerpt
Feminist contributions to counseling practice with families and children are reviewed, with a focus on the Third Wave feminist movement and its implications for family development and intervention. Recommendations for empowering young clients and their support systems as well as current challenges and research needs are also considered.
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A variety of contemporary statistics highlight the need for advocacy efforts related to girls and women. First, there are important economic issues affecting women. The large majority of those living in poverty worldwide continue to be women and children (Women Thrive Worldwide, 2008). Currently, the single largest poverty group in the United States, after children, is women over the age of 60 years (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005). Economic concerns often translate into power issues in society. Women face obstacles that contribute to an imbalance in their representation in the workforce, thereby influencing the overall economic picture for women. For example, recent data indicate that only 10 women head Fortune 500 companies (Fortune, 2006). Similarly, only 5% of women are promoted to the position of full partner in law firms, and fewer than 30% of top master of business administration program students are women (Di Meglio, 2004). In terms of political leverage, only 14% of the U.S. Senate and 17% of the House of Representatives are made up of women. Although these are record-breaking percentages and speak to the efficacy of feminist works to date, there is still much progress to be made. Some might suggest that girls and women are simply making personal career choices that put them at an economic disadvantage. As we note in a review of the literature, feminists weigh the importance of socialization in such decision-making processes.
Additional concerns that may be closely connected to the economic picture for many women in the United States are illustrated by statistics related to the work and earnings of people in the lower and middle working classes. For example, female students make up approximately 86% to 96% of those enrolled in vocational cosmetology, child care, and health assistant courses. Median wages for workers in these occupations range from about $7 to $11 per hour. In contrast, male students make up approximately 93% of students learning the trades of plumbing, electrical engineering, welding, and automotive technology. Median wages for workers in these fields range from about $18 to $20 per hour, close to twice as much as that earned by people working in the female-dominated trades (Cavanagh, 2002). Furthermore, women, are more likely to work on a part-time basis (25% of employed women versus 11% of men worked part-time in 2005), making about half of what full-time workers earn per hour (U.S. Department of Labor, 2006). Finally, even in jobs that require the highest level of education possible (doctoral degrees), women are at a disadvantage. At every academic rank in university settings, men earn more than women. In addition, 66% of full-time male instructors are promoted beyond the assistant professor level as compared with 46% of women (Curtis, 2004). A quick perusal of the statistics also reveals that women of color are at an even greater economic and power disadvantage in contemporary society.
In addition to economic and career-related concerns, girls and women continue to face challenging barriers at home and at school. These barriers highlight the need to focus on equal opportunity for girls and boys. Stereotypes about males and females come into play from the beginning of a child's life. According to Gilbert's (2001) review of literature, some findings that may challenge traditional perceptions include the following: Parents tend to converse more with female babies, female infants actually appear to be less emotionally and physically vulnerable than male babies, and female infants are less affected by maternal depression. Therefore, females do not naturally begin their lives from a disadvantaged position. However, gender stereotyping is passed down from adults and is adopted by toddlers who begin to exhibit gender-typed behavior starting around the age of 2 or 3 years. Girls tend to take on nurturing play roles and are reinforced for emotion-centered and stereotypical gender-role play.
Barriers related to educational experiences and opportunities for girls are also of concern. For example, after the age of 9 years, when in mixed-gender groups, boys tend to dominate activities, such as taking positions of leadership with hands-on science experiments (Webb, Baxter, & Thompson, 1996). Although there is no biological basis for differences in math abilities for males and females (Gilbert, 2001), down the road on the educational path, less than one third of all doctorates in math, computer science, engineering, chemistry, and physics are awarded to women (Institute of Education Sciences, 2007). In the secondary education setting, girls represent only 17% of high school students who take a course in advanced computer science (American Association of University Women, 2000). Overall, there is a plethora of research on gender differences in educational settings, exposing barriers for both males and females. In this article, however, we are focusing on basic concerns that highlight the need to advocate for girls. (Note. Wherever the term girl appears in this article, it refers to the period of development for females through the years of their elementary school education ending with graduation from high school.) We are in no way suggesting that advocacy efforts related to males are unnecessary; in fact, we enthusiastically encourage the inclusion of males in the contemporary feminist movement and suggest that readers consult additional resources focused on empowering boys and men (e.g., Courtenay, 2000; Horne & Kiselica, 1999).
Finally, in presenting a rationale for emphasizing feminist principles in our work with female children and adolescents,...
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