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Article Excerpt
BACKGROUND: This study is a cost-benefit analysis that quantifies the social and economic benefits to household lead paint hazard control compared with the investments needed to minimize exposure to these hazards.
OBJECTIVES: This research updates estimates of elevated blood lead levels among a cohort of children [less than or equal to] 6 years of age and compiles recent research to determine a range of the costs of lead paint hazard control ($1-$11 billion) and the benefits of reduction attributed to each cohort for health care ($11-$53 billion), lifetime earnings ($l65-$233 billion), tax revenue ($25-$35 billion), special education ($30-$l46 million), attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder ($267 million), and the direct costs of crime ($1.7 billion).
RESULTS: Each dollar invested in lead paint hazard control results in a return of $17-$221 or a net savings of $181-269 billion.
CONCLUSIONS: There are substantial returns to investing in lead hazard control, particularly targeted at early intervention in communities most likely at risk. Given the high societal costs of inaction, lead hazard control appears to be well worth the price.
KEY WORDS: cost--benefit, economics, housing, lead poisoning. Environ Health Perspect 117:1162-1167 (2009). doi:10.1289/ehp.0800408 available via http://dx.doi.org/ [Online 31 March 2009]
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Lead poisoning is a serious hazard for children and causes significant biological and neurologic damage linked to cognitive and behavioral impairment (Bellinger 2008a, 2008b). The level of lead exposure has fallen dramatically over the past 30 years because the lead content has been reduced in gasoline, household paint, food canning, industrial emissions, water lead, and other sources, and because public health and housing initiatives have targeted the problem. According to the National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey (NHANES), a population survey administered by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the geometric mean for blood lead levels (BLLs) for children 1-5 years of age fell from 14.9 [micro]g/dL in 1976 to 1.7 [micro]g/dL in 2006 (CDC 2007b). The number of children 1--5 years of age with BLLs at least 10 [micro]g/ dL has fallen from an estimated 13.5 million to 174,000 over the same period (NHANES 2003-2006). Although the 1- to 5-year age grouping is useful for comparison over time, I focus on a cohort of children [less than or equal to]: 6 years of age in which there are an estimated 194,000 children with BLLs at least 10 [micro]g/dL.
Recent research has indicated that significant neurologic damage to children occurs even at very low levels of exposure (Bellinger 2008a, 2008b; Chen et al. 2007; Lanphear et al. 2005). Preventing these levels of exposure in young children will require controlling a significant and persistent cause of lead poisoning: lead paint used in housing before its ban in 1978. Although pre-1950 house paint has the largest concentration of lead-based paint hazards, house paint produced in 1950-1978 also contains substantial lead content. Poor, urban minorities disproportionately reside in housing units containing lead-based paint hazards, creating significant inequity in health and neurologic outcomes by ethnicity and socioeconomic status (CDC 2004). Because the costs of lead paint abatement are nontrivial and the removal must be done on a unit-by-unit basis (rather than imposed at an industry level), there must be substantial commitment to further reduce lead poisoning among vulnerable children.
A growing body of literature has detailed the economic costs and risks of lead poisoning, including several analyses summarizing these costs and setting them against the estimated costs of lead paint hazard control. However, recent research has broadened still the scope of our understanding of the societal costs of lead poisoning. For example, new studies have begun to analyze the correlation of lead poisoning with crime rates and their associated costs, as well as linking early lead exposure to adult-onset health problems. In this article I aim to comprehensively address the costs and benefits of household lead hazard control vis-a-vis new discoveries in the medical, psychological, and economic literature. I focus on children [less than or equal to] 6 years of age, because lead exposure is the highest for this age group, and this is the period when lead exposure produces the most significant damage.
In this analysis, I constructed an upper and lower bound on the cost-effectiveness of strategies to reduce lead exposure. The reasoning behind this methodology is that there is no single estimate that accurately reflects either the costs or benefits of lead hazard control. On the costs side, the actual expense of reducing lead paint hazards in affected homes varies with the extent of interventions required. On the benefits side, the number of children with lead exposure ranges from those reported in state child blood lead surveillance data to those determined from weighted estimates of national surveys. Although several factors could make one extreme or another more credible, it is likely that the truth lies within this interval.
Incidence of Low-Level Childhood Lead Poisoning
Although the attention on lead and children historically has focused on BLLs of [greater than or equal to] 10 [micro]g/dL, recent evidence suggests that lower levels incur high individual and societal costs. Although community, medical, and environmental interventions have generally been initiated at a BLL of 10 [micro]g/dL, the government has found no level of exposure to lead below which adverse health effect do not occur (CDC 2004). BLLs between 2 and 10 [micro]g/dL have been found to cause persistent cognitive damage (Bellinger 2008a, 2008b; Binns et al. 2007; Lanphear et al. 2005), and children with BLLs in this range are likely to benefit from aggressive intervention. Table 1 compares the composition of children with BLLs between 2 and 10 [micro]g/dL with the demographic patterns of the entire cohort of children [less than or equal to] 6 years of age in 2006. Given limited sample sizes in the data, it is inadvisable to independently measure the characteristics of the population with levels > 10 [micro]g/dL.
Table 1. Demographics of childhood lead poisoning (%). Characteristic BLL Share of 2-10 total [micro] population g/dL [less than or equal to] 6 years of age (a) Children [less than or equal to] 6 years of age 24.7 100.0 Sex Male 53.6 51.1 Female 46.4 48.9 Race White, non-Hispanic 47.4 57.9 Black, non-Hispanic 23.6 13.7 Hispanic 24.6 21.1...
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