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Article Excerpt
Since its introduction in 1981, rap music has grown greatly in popularity. However, rap music has also been a source of controversy (Dixon & Brooks, 2002; Dixon & Linz, 1997; Hansen & Hansen, 2000; Rose, 1994). Specifically, it has been accused of promoting controversial messages dealing with violence, sex and materialism (Johnson, Jackson & Gatto, 1995; Smith, 2005). Previous research has suggested that this content promotes negative behaviors; however, there are mixed findings in prior research suggesting that rap music contains both controversial and community promoting themes (Johnson et al., 1995; Zillmann et al., 1995). Therefore, it is necessary to examine what thematic messages are prevalent in current rap music.
Artists and characters in the videos are another aspect of rap music that demand attention. Unlike other music genres, rap music is dominated by Black artists and performers (Kubrin, 2005). This aspect is important because of the colorism that often occurs in media. Often colorism is an issue the Black viewers face whereby individuals with lighter skin may be given advantages over those with darker skin (Kubrin, 2005; Dixon & Maddox, 2005; Oliver, 1994). However, the Afrocentric features and skin tone of individuals in rap music have never been analyzed.
Finally, recent debates on rap music have accused it of being overly sexist and degrading towards women. As a genre, rap music is often linked to Black male identity which may lead to an increase in themes of sexism and misogyny for women (hooks, 1992). Furthermore, research suggests that Afrocentric bias may occur differently for men and women (Maddox, 2004). Specifically, light skinned African American females are more likely to be associated with the White beauty standard. Alternatively, dark skinned males are often associated with criminality. The current study examines how these gender differences appear for African American men and women in rap music.
The three gaps in the rap music literature related to thematic content, Afrocentricity, and gender warrant a more current analysis of rap music videos. The goal of this study is to create a better understanding of these images in rap music by reporting on a systematic content analysis of rap music videos appearing on the annual countdowns of three music television channels in 2006. However, first it is necessary to review the rap content uncovered in previous research.
Controversial Themes in Rap Music
Rap music is a genre that was born out of slave spirituals, blues, jazz, and "soul" as a musical expression of African American traditions (Rose, 1994; Zillman et al., 1995). Dixon and Linz (1997) suggest that this tradition has been passed down to contemporary African American youth, and contains cultural elements such as "toasting," "signifying," and "playing the dozens." A variety of messages have been found to exist within rap music, and there is some debate as to which messages are used most often. Some research suggests that rap music portrayals are negative and include images promoting violence, sex and materialism (Baxter, DeRiemer, Landini, Leslie & Singletary, 1985; Johnson et al., 1995; Kubrin, 2005; Smith, 2005; Zillman et al., 1995). These researchers suggest that these messages propagate a desire for wealth, while glamorizing sexual actions and violence as a means to obtain this affluence. Smith's review found an extreme amount of emphasis on violence, sexual content, and substance abuse aired on Music Television (MTV). A content analysis of "gangsta" rap by Kubrin found that this particular subtype of rap music focuses on creating social orders in which the use of violence is not only accepted but also seen as necessary to African American life.
Research also suggests that rap music contains more positive images. Zillman et al. (1995) suggest that rap music may be used as a vehicle to fight oppression from the dominant culture. Additionally, Kubrin (2005) found that 68% of "gangsta" rap focuses on the idea of respect. Kubrin found that the message of respect is exhibited as often as are the images of violence. These images conflict with the more controversial messages by promoting community unity and expressions of African American culture. These positive messages may indicate that rap music can be used by the African American community as an incentive for social movement (Rose, 1994).
Apparently, there are competing views regarding the common themes in rap music videos. There are also some limitations with existing research. First, the majority of these analyses were conducted more than 10 years ago when music videos were first introduced to the public. Given that rap music is a part of popular culture, themes in the genre are changing with society. Therefore, an updated review of the dominant themes in the genre is necessary. Second, some of the analyses in this research used only one television channel, such as MTV, in gathering their sample (Smith, 2005), or chose to look at only one genre of rap music such as "gangsta" rap (Kubrin, 2005). This study will extend the existing research by investigating common themes available across several music channels, and including all genres of rap music. Rather than concentrating on certain types of rap music or specific exemplars, this review provides a more general overview of the rap music scene.
Finally, there is not a comprehensive analysis that examines both controversial and community-oriented themes within rap music. Some previous research suggests that there are several negative or controversial themes such as sex, violence, materialism and misogyny that dominate rap (Baxter et al., 1985; Johnson et al., 1995). Research has also found several positive or community-oriented messages which include expression of culture, community unity, political awareness, and disaffection toward mainstream society (hooks, 1992; Kubrin, 2005). However, up to this point, there has been much disagreement about the frequency with which these themes air. No analysis has considered that both themes may be occurring at the same time. This study extends this research by looking for a variety of messages in current rap music. Specifically, this study is designed to create a better understanding of whether controversial or community-oriented themes are more dominant in rap music videos.
Afrocentric Features and Rap Music
In addition to examining thematic material, this research also is interested in the portrayals of people of color, specifically the depiction of Afrocentricity and colorism. The beauty myth postulates that there is a universal beauty standard. This standard is represented by Eurocentric features such as white skin, blond hair, blue eyes, as well as youth, and low body weight (Dixon & Maddox, 2005). This has placed pressure on Blacks to associate light skin tone and Eurocentric features with beauty.
Historically, African Americans with lighter skin tone and more Eurocentric features have been privileged in United States society. This privilege has occurred since the days of slavery when slave masters abused and raped female slaves creating children with more Eurocentric features and lighter skin tones. These individuals were allowed certain privileges based on their Eurocentric appearance (Russell, Wilson, & Hall, 1992). This concession has continued to resonate over time. Even today, research has found that skin tone can be a determining factor in educational attainment, employment, and income, operating as a perpetuation of inequality (Herring, Keith, & Horton, 2003). Furthermore, the pressure to appear more Eurocentric is exemplified though the continual marketing of skin-lightening and hair-straightening products (Russell et al., 1992).
Negative associations with darker skin tone and Afrocentric features also occur frequently in media (Dixon & Maddox, 2005; Oliver, Jackson, Moses & Dangerfield, 2004). Blacks with more Afrocentric features (e.g., darker skin tone, thicker lips, and larger noses) are more likely to be associated with stereotypical or negative evaluations (Dixon & Maddox, 2005; Oliver et al., 2004). This association often equates Black individuals, especially men, with criminal behavior. Maddox's (2004) model of racial phenotypicality bias suggests that individuals use phenotypes in order to categorize individuals, often along racial lines. These categories are attached to conceptual knowledge consisting of stereotypical evaluations (Blair, Judd, Sadler, & Jenkins, 2002). These evaluations can include essentialist beliefs about racial groups (Haslam, Rothschild, & Ernst, 2002), implicit causal theories (Medin & Ortony, 1989), and cultural standards of physical attractiveness (Wade, 1996). The perpetuation of colorism in the media is often conceptualized as internalized White supremacy whereby individuals of color begin to adopt the negative attributions made about their in-group. Rap music, as a genre, typically features Black artists. Therefore, the Afrocentricity of the individuals in the music videos can have important implications for the associations made about African American individuals (Kubrin, 2005).
Examining the Afrocentricity in rap music videos can offer a greater understanding of how colorism occurs in the media, and specifically in genre-specific images. The occurrence of colorism in rap music could have potential effects on both the in-group and out-group with reference to individuals of color. For the in-group, an emphasis on Eurocentric features could create a pressure to adhere. Individuals of color, especially females, who are unable to withstand this pressure may have a lower self-esteem (Crocker & Major, 1989). On the other hand, for the out-group members, associations made with more Afrocentric features could lead to negative evaluations by the majority group, more specifically the White audience members (Boehlert, 1995). However, there is currently no research that has analyzed the...
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